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SHAP Explainers

This reference targets SHAP 0.52.0. Prefer the callable interface (explanation = explainer(X)) so results retain values, baselines, data, feature names, and output names in a shap.Explanation.

Selection Checklist

Before choosing an explainer, answer:

1. What exact callable or model output is being explained?
2. Is the model natively supported by a specialized explainer?
3. What does "missing" mean for each input feature?
4. Are features independent, correlated, grouped, sequential, or spatial?
5. How many model evaluations are affordable per row?
6. Is the output scalar or multi-output?
7. Is an exact result required under the chosen game, or is a sampled estimate acceptable?

Recommended Decision Path

Model/input	First choice	Alternative	Main risk
Supported tree ensemble	TreeExplainer	GPUTreeExplainer (experimental)	Output units and feature-dependence semantics
Linear model	LinearExplainer	ExactExplainer	Correlation assumptions
Small tabular feature set	ExactExplainer	PermutationExplainer	Exponential cost without a partition tree
General tabular callable	PermutationExplainer	PartitionExplainer, KernelExplainer	Evaluation cost and off-manifold masks
Hierarchically grouped inputs	PartitionExplainer	PermutationExplainer with Partition masker	Attributions are Owen values for the constrained game
Differentiable TensorFlow/PyTorch model	DeepExplainer or GradientExplainer	PartitionExplainer	Operator support, background, and output shape
Text or image callable	PartitionExplainer with domain masker	Framework-specific deep explainer	Masking semantics dominate interpretation

shap.Explainer

shap.Explainer combines a model, masker, link, and algorithm. With algorithm="auto", it returns a compatible specialized subclass.

explainer = shap.Explainer(
    model,
    masker=background,
    algorithm="auto",
    output_names=output_names,
    feature_names=feature_names,
    seed=7,
)
explanation = explainer(X_eval)

Current algorithm names include auto, permutation, partition, tree, linear, deep, exact, and additive.

Use the auto-selector when:

• the model/masker pair is conventional;
• default output semantics are acceptable;
• no algorithm-specific parameter is needed.

Instantiate the specialized class when:

• tree model_output or feature_perturbation must be explicit;
• a particular approximation or evaluation budget is part of the analysis;
• a framework-specific deep model requires a precise input/layer form.

Passing a background matrix is shorthand for a standard tabular masker. Prefer an explicit masker when its semantics need to appear in an audit record.

TreeExplainer

Current constructor:

shap.TreeExplainer(
    model,
    data=None,
    model_output="raw",
    feature_perturbation="auto",
    feature_names=None,
)

Supported families include XGBoost, LightGBM, CatBoost, PySpark trees, and most scikit-learn tree models. Support varies by model version and categorical configuration, so test a small batch after dependency changes.

Feature perturbation

feature_perturbation defines how hidden features are integrated:

• "interventional" requires background data. Runtime scales approximately linearly with background size.
• "tree_path_dependent" uses training counts stored in tree leaves and does not require a separate background.
• "auto" uses interventional semantics when data is supplied and tree-path-dependent semantics otherwise. This has been the default since 0.47.

These options answer different questions and can allocate credit differently for dependent features. Neither turns an ordinary predictive model into a causal model.

Output space

model_output can be:

• "raw": model-specific raw tree output;
• "probability": transformed probability output;
• "log_loss": per-row natural-log loss decomposition;
• a supported model method name such as "predict_proba".

"probability" and "log_loss" currently require feature_perturbation="interventional" and background data.

Raw output is model-dependent:

• regression commonly uses the predicted target value;
• XGBoost binary classification commonly uses a margin/log-odds value;
• scikit-learn tree classifiers commonly expose one probability output per class.

Always inspect shape and verify the additive reconstruction against the exact model output.

Calling and validation

explainer = shap.TreeExplainer(
    model,
    data=background,
    feature_perturbation="interventional",
    model_output="probability",
)
all_outputs = explainer(X_eval)
class_exp = all_outputs[..., class_index]

reconstructed = class_exp.base_values + class_exp.values.sum(axis=1)
expected = model.predict_proba(X_eval)[:, class_index]
np.testing.assert_allclose(reconstructed, expected, rtol=1e-5, atol=1e-6)

The built-in additivity check currently applies only to some output paths, including raw margins. An explicit reconstruction check remains useful.

Approximate tree values

Do not pass approximate to the constructor. If the speed/quality trade-off is intentional:

approx_exp = explainer(X_eval, approximate=True)

This uses a single-ordering approximation associated with Saabas values. It does not retain the consistency guarantee of Tree SHAP and can over-weight lower tree splits. Label the result as approximate.

Interaction values

Tree models can compute pairwise interactions:

interaction = explainer.shap_interaction_values(X_eval)

Shapes:

• one output: (samples, features, features);
• multiple outputs: (samples, features, features, outputs).

Since 0.45, multiple outputs use a NumPy array rather than a list. Interaction computation can be much larger than ordinary explanations; subset rows and features deliberately.

GPU tree explainer

GPUTreeExplainer is experimental and requires a source build with CUDA support. Validate parity against CPU TreeExplainer, especially for missing values, multiclass baselines, and categorical splits.

LinearExplainer

Use for linear or logistic models:

masker = shap.maskers.Independent(background)
explainer = shap.LinearExplainer(model, masker)
explanation = explainer(X_eval)

With independent/interventional masking, a linear attribution is related to:

coefficient_i * (x_i - reference_mean_i)

For correlation-aware allocation, use an Impute masker:

masker = shap.maskers.Impute(background, method="linear")
explainer = shap.LinearExplainer(model, masker)

Correlation-aware values share credit among correlated inputs and can assign attribution to a feature that the fitted model does not directly use. This is a property of the conditional game, not evidence of a direct model coefficient or causal effect. SHAP 0.52 warns when the estimated covariance matrix is singular.

ExactExplainer

ExactExplainer enumerates coalitions with optimizations:

masker = shap.maskers.Independent(background)
explainer = shap.ExactExplainer(model_fn, masker)
explanation = explainer(X_eval)

Use it for:

• small feature spaces;
• correctness checks against an approximate explainer;
• partition games where the hierarchy sharply reduces evaluation cost.

Avoid it for unconstrained high-dimensional inputs.

PermutationExplainer

PermutationExplainer is the general modern model-agnostic default:

masker = shap.maskers.Independent(background, max_samples=100)
explainer = shap.PermutationExplainer(
    model_fn,
    masker,
    feature_names=feature_names,
    seed=7,
)

minimum_budget = 2 * len(feature_names) + 1
explanation = explainer(
    X_eval,
    max_evals=minimum_budget * 10,
    error_bounds=True,
)

One forward/reverse pass guarantees additivity and is exact for models with interactions no higher than second order. Repeating random permutations improves estimates for higher-order interactions.

Cost scales with:

• evaluation rows;
• feature count;
• number of permutations;
• background rows;
• model latency.

Batch the model callable where possible. Preserve the seed and budget.

PartitionExplainer

PartitionExplainer follows a hierarchical clustering of input features:

masker = shap.maskers.Partition(
    background,
    max_samples=100,
    clustering="correlation",
)
explainer = shap.PartitionExplainer(
    model_fn,
    masker,
    output_names=output_names,
)
explanation = explainer(X_eval, max_evals=1000)

With a partition tree, the values are Owen values for a constrained cooperative game. This is useful when:

• groups should enter a coalition together;
• correlated tabular inputs should be organized hierarchically;
• tokens or image regions have natural structure;
• unconstrained exact enumeration is too expensive.

Do not call partition values equivalent to unconstrained Shapley values without noting the changed game.

KernelExplainer

Kernel SHAP fits a weighted linear surrogate over sampled coalitions:

explainer = shap.KernelExplainer(
    model_fn,
    background,
    link="identity",
    feature_names=feature_names,
)
legacy_values = explainer.shap_values(X_eval, nsamples="auto")

Use it when:

• maintaining a validated Kernel SHAP analysis;
• a specific identity/logit link behavior is required;
• another explainer cannot represent the model/masker combination.

For new general tabular work, consider PermutationExplainer first because it uses the modern callable interface directly and exposes evaluation budgets clearly.

Kernel SHAP can be slow and may create unrealistic masked samples. Summarizing background data changes the estimand as well as runtime.

DeepExplainer

Deep SHAP approximates attributions for supported differentiable TensorFlow and PyTorch models.

Before constructing a PyTorch explainer, switch the nn.Module to evaluation mode using its standard eval method. This is a PyTorch state change, not Python's built-in code-evaluation function.

PyTorch:

explainer = shap.DeepExplainer(model, background_tensor)
values = explainer.shap_values(test_tensor)

TensorFlow/Keras:

explainer = shap.DeepExplainer(model, background_array)
values = explainer.shap_values(test_array)

Model forms:

• TensorFlow: a model, or an (inputs, output) tensor pair with a single-dimensional output;
• PyTorch: an nn.Module, or (model, layer) to attribute the selected layer's input.

Background cost is linear in sample count. Official guidance describes roughly 100 samples as a useful estimate and 1000 as a more accurate but costlier estimate; test convergence for the actual model.

Output shapes since 0.45:

• one input, one output: (samples, *input_shape);
• one input, multiple outputs: (samples, *input_shape, outputs);
• multiple inputs: a list, one array per input.

ranked_outputs=k returns both values and selected output indexes. Never assume a binary model returns a two-element list.

Deep explainers support only known operators and architecture patterns. Additivity failures can indicate unsupported operations rather than a tolerance problem.

GradientExplainer

GradientExplainer implements expected gradients, an extension of integrated gradients:

explainer = shap.GradientExplainer(
    model,
    background_tensor,
    batch_size=50,
    local_smoothing=0,
)
values = explainer.shap_values(test_tensor, nsamples=200, rseed=7)

Use it when:

• the model is differentiable;
• DeepExplainer lacks an operator rule;
• expected-gradients semantics are appropriate.

It remains an approximation. Report nsamples, seed, background, and any smoothing.

Other Public Explainers

• AdditiveExplainer: generalized additive models.
• SamplingExplainer: Shapley sampling/IME-style approximation; mainly relevant to existing workflows.
• CoalitionExplainer: newer coalition-oriented functionality may evolve; verify against the installed release before adopting it in stable pipelines.
• shap.explainers.other.*: wrappers and diagnostic baselines, not the default for a SHAP audit.

Multi-Output Handling

Modern tabular explanations normally put outputs on the final axis:

print(explanation.values.shape)
print(explanation.output_names)

one_output = explanation[..., output_index]
# If output_names were supplied:
one_output = explanation[..., "output_name"]

For ranked deep outputs, use the returned indexes; they can differ by sample.

Do not:

• use explanation[output_index] to select a class (that selects a row);
• average signed values across outputs;
• compare output magnitudes in different units;
• pass a 3-D multi-output tabular explanation directly to a plot requiring (samples, features).

Sources

• Explainer API: https://shap.readthedocs.io/en/latest/generated/shap.Explainer.html
• TreeExplainer: https://shap.readthedocs.io/en/latest/generated/shap.TreeExplainer.html
• PermutationExplainer: https://shap.readthedocs.io/en/latest/generated/shap.PermutationExplainer.html
• PartitionExplainer: https://shap.readthedocs.io/en/latest/generated/shap.PartitionExplainer.html
• DeepExplainer: https://shap.readthedocs.io/en/latest/generated/shap.DeepExplainer.html
• API reference: https://shap.readthedocs.io/en/latest/api.html